A hen will usually take 24-26 hours to produce an egg, and thirty minutes later she will start all over again. The egg produced will have a clear albumen (egg white) and a yellow colored yolk. Most often, eggs have only one yolk however, a hen can produce double yolked eggs, or an egg with no yolk at all. Eggs can range in color from white to brown to pink, or even speckled, but the shell color has nothing to do with the egg’s nutritional value. The color of the egg is more directly related to the color of the hen; hens with white earlobes and white feathers will lay white eggs, while hens with red earlobes and feathers will lay brown eggs. Eggs are graded into sizes: small, medium, large, extra-large, and jumbo. Most recipes call for the use of large eggs which are approximately 2 ounces.

Many commercial egg companies raise their hens in small cages crowded with other hens which restricts their natural behavior. Animal welfare advocates take issue with the conditions these hens are raised in as they are debeaked to prevent pecking of other hen’s eggs, and cannot build nests or dust bathe (normal chicken behavior). Many laying hens are slaughtered at one year of age because their production begins to decline. Some consumers choose to buy eggs produced by free range hens to support farmers who give the chickens outdoor access instead of keeping them in tight cages.

Chicken eggs, while inexpensive, provide very high quality protein and numerous vitamins and minerals. A single large chicken egg contains 7 grams of protein, and all of the egg’s vitamins are found in the egg yolk. Protein helps to stabilize glucose levels, builds lean muscle, and provides a feeling of satiety. Eggs are one of the few foods to naturally contain vitamin D, and also contain vitamins A and E. The yolk provides choline, a nutrient that is essential for proper brain development. Choline is especially important for pregnant and lactating women to ensure healthy brain development in a fetus or newborn baby.

Although the egg contains very important nutrients such as calcium, phosphorous, and potassium, it also contains about 300 mg of cholesterol, which is two-thirds the daily recommended amount, and about 10 grams of fat. Researchers are still debating over the health risks of eggs because although a large egg contains about 10 grams of fat, it is mostly unsaturated fat which is far less harmful than saturated fat. Also, one study showed that the human body did not absorb much of the cholesterol from eggs, and another study suggested that eggs lowered the bad LDL cholesterol in patients but raised the good HDL cholesterol levels.

Though egg shells act as a seal against the entrance of bacteria, broken eggs or those laid by unhealthy hens can present certain risks. One main egg related concern is salmonella. Experts advise to cook eggs thoroughly before eating because the heat will kill any harmful bacteria or other organisms present. Hens that are kept in very sanitary conditions have a very low incidence of salmonella, and on average, only one in 30,000 eggs produced will actually harbor the salmonella bacteria. Still, thoroughly cooking an egg will remove any possibility of ingesting harmful bacteria. Even healthy, cooked eggs can present a problem for certain individuals because eggs commonly provoke an allergic reaction, especially in children. Doctors actually recommend feeding only the yolk to children because many are allergic to the egg white. If exposure is kept low, many kids will grow out of the egg allergy.

While eggs are a great breakfast food, providing energy and protein to start the day, they are also found in yummy desserts like custard and meringue, used in protest (egging), and decorated as an Easter holiday tradition. Though egg consumption declined to a low in 1991 because of lifestyle changes, it is now increasing as more people become aware of the health benefits that eggs offer. Eggs are an important dietary staple throughout the world, especially in Japan, Canada, and Korea (leading egg importers), and a whole carton of eggs can still be purchased for approximately one dollar.

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Flavor is Always First

To get started, first decide what flavor you want your homemade dinner buns to have. The possibilities are endless, ranging from plain buns to herb-infused, whole grain, hearty buns or even fruited buns for a more exotic twist.

If you’re adding herbs to your dinner buns, you’ll need about 2 to 3 tablespoons of an herb mixture for the basic recipe. For whole grain, hearty buns, substitute whole grain flours (such as whole wheat, rye, buckwheat, spelt, or barley/rice flour) for half to three-quarters of the regular unbleached flour. For a fruity version, add 1/2 cup of currants and consider replacing the milk with a juice, such as apple, pineapple, or your favorite juice blend.

Here’s your basic homemade dinner roll recipe:

1 1/2 cups of liquid (usually milk)
4 cups all-purpose unbleached flour
1/4 cup oil or 3 to 5 tablespoons butter
3 tablespoons sugar or honey
1 teaspoon salt
2 packages active dry yeast
Start by combining your liquid and oil in a small saucepan. Warm it over low heat until it reaches about 125 degrees Fahrenheit.

In a mixing bowl, combine 2/3 of the flour, all the sugar, salt, and yeast. Mix thoroughly, then add the warm liquid and mix again.

Gradually add the remaining flour, a few tablespoons at a time, mixing and kneading as you go. The dough will be sticky at first, but as you add more flour, it will become shiny and elastic.

Place the dough in a well-oiled bowl, cover it with plastic wrap and a towel, and set it in a warm spot, away from drafts or high heat. Let it rise for 15 to 20 minutes.

Once it has risen, turn the dough onto a floured board or countertop. Punch it down and knead for about 5 minutes.

Next, the fun part: shaping the dough. If you want round rolls, cut the dough into smaller portions and shape them into rolls. Place each roll onto a greased baking sheet, leaving about 2 inches between them. Alternatively, you can use muffin pans.

For S-shaped rolls, shape the dough into an “S” before placing them onto the baking sheet. Some people prefer to create braided bread by forming three long strips of dough into a braid, similar to braiding hair. Brush the tops of the rolls with butter to encourage browning, then cover them and let them rise in a warm spot for another 20 minutes.

Once the rolls have risen to your desired height and shape, it’s time to bake them. Don’t expect them to rise much in the oven. Bake at 425 degrees Fahrenheit for 12 to 15 minutes, then cool them on a wire rack.

Homemade dinner rolls are always a hit at any holiday party. Don’t miss out on them!

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Cornstarch thickens with a satiny smoothness and glossy appearance. It adds no flavor of its own, allowing the true taste of foods to shine through. Dishes thickened with cornstarch often have a brighter, more translucent appearance than those thickened with flour. Cornstarch also blends more easily with cold liquids than flour, as it doesn’t absorb liquid until it is heated.

Gluten is not present in cornstarch, making it an excellent substitute for flour in many recipes. This is particularly beneficial for individuals sensitive to gluten who require gluten-free food preparation. However, in baked goods like bread and cake, gluten plays a vital structural role, meaning flour or another gluten-containing ingredient is often necessary. Always check the recipe to determine whether cornstarch can be used as a substitute.

Cornstarch is commonly used as a thickening agent in puddings, sauces, and soups. Mixing it with a granular solid, such as granulated sugar, helps it disperse more evenly into a liquid. Sauces thickened with cornstarch are typically clear, unlike the opaque appearance of those thickened with flour. However, these sauces can thin out if cooked too long or stirred too vigorously. In many European cake and cookie recipes, cornstarch is combined with flour to create a finer-textured, more compact baked product.

Cornstarch is also frequently used to thicken gravies, glazes, soups, stews, casseroles, pies, and cake fillings. In cakes, cookies, and pastries, it is often mixed with flour to produce more tender results. Additionally, cornstarch is used to coat foods before frying and is a common ingredient in batters. Most packaged pudding mixes sold in supermarkets contain cornstarch, but homemade versions can be made using a double boiler. A basic cornstarch pudding typically consists of milk, sugar, cornstarch, and a flavoring agent.

Practical Uses and Substitutions for Cornstarch

Cornstarch has the same thickening power as arrowroot, potato starch, and tapioca, and can be substituted in equal amounts. It has twice the thickening power of flour, so only half as much is needed. The following conversion chart helps calculate the correct amount of cornstarch when substituting for flour:

Conversion Chart (Flour to Cornstarch)

Cornstarch is especially effective in Asian cuisine. It enhances everything from plum dipping sauces to stir-fry mixes.

TIP: A stir-fry sauce mix can be frozen in tightly sealed containers in 3/4-cup portions for up to 3 months. Thaw and shake before use.

Beyond the kitchen, cornstarch is used in the manufacturing of environmentally friendly products. In 2004, Japanese company Pioneer announced a biodegradable Blu-ray disc made from cornstarch.

Other industrial and domestic uses of cornstarch include laundry starch, paper sizing, adhesive production, and cooking. Corn syrup and corn sugar are derived from the hydrolysis of cornstarch.

Cornstarch also has personal care applications. It’s an effective alternative to talcum powder, absorbing moisture efficiently. It can be found in powders, skin-cleansing milk, deodorants, and even as a remedy for sweaty shoes. For a skin cleanser, mix equal parts cornstarch and glycerin with one teaspoon of rum and a few drops of a preferred essential oil. Apply a small amount to your skin, massage gently, and rinse with warm water.

To absorb shine on oily skin, mix 1 tablespoon of cornstarch with kaolin (white clay) and dust it on the oily areas.

To combat sweaty feet, sprinkle a bit of cornstarch in your shoes before wearing them to help absorb moisture.

For a natural deodorant, combine cornstarch with finely ground lavender and pat under your arms to stay dry on hot days.

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The name “chocolate” comes from the Aztecs of Mexico and is derived from xocolatl, which means “bitter water.” Chocolate comes from the cacao bean, which grows on trees native to South and Central America. Discovered around 600 A.D., the cacao bean was originally used to make a bitter chocolate beverage for important members of Mayan and Aztec societies. The beans were even used as a form of currency. To make xocolatl, the Maya and Aztecs would grind cacao beans and add water, chile peppers, corn, and spices. Aztec legend states that wisdom and power come from eating the fruits of the cacao tree.

From Bitter Beverages to Sweet Delights

Today, the leading producer of cacao beans is Africa, where they are still grown and harvested by smaller farming operations, many of which do much of the work by hand. Cacao beans are seeds from pod-forming fruits that range from lemon yellow to deep red. When the seeds are harvested and laid out to dry in the sun, some cacao farmers perform a dance over the seeds to signal the end of the harvest. High-quality chocolate manufacturers select their cacao beans in a way similar to how a winery selects its grape varieties.

Annual chocolate consumption per capita is approximately 12 pounds per person, with consumers spending over seven billion dollars each year on chocolate! Switzerland tops all other chocolate consumers, with an annual rate of 22.4 pounds per person. Peak chocolate sales occur between Thanksgiving and New Year’s, and just before Valentine’s Day. Chocolate makers use almost half of the world’s almonds, 20% of the world’s peanuts, and 8% of the world’s sugar. Chocolate has over 500 flavor components (twice as many as vanilla), and it has a melting point just below the temperature of the human body – that’s why it melts in your mouth!

The Spanish explorer Cortés is credited with modifying the Aztec’s bitter chocolate beverage into a much sweeter drink. He (and his men) experimented by adding cane sugar, cinnamon, and even vanilla to make the beverage more appealing to the European palate. As chocolate spread from Spain to the rest of Europe, the demand for cacao beans increased dramatically, and colonies and plantations were built to keep up with the demand. Most of these plantations used wage laborers and enslaved people to produce and harvest cacao. It wasn’t until 1910 that William Cadbury led chocolate manufacturers in a boycott of cacao beans grown by slaves, pledging to only buy beans from cacao farmers who provided fair working conditions.

The industrial age revolutionized the production of chocolate, which had previously been made by hand in small shops. With large-scale production, chocolate became more affordable to the public. Chocolate manufacturers like Daniel Peter and Henri Nestlé experimented by adding condensed milk and other ingredients, producing a smoother, creamier candy that is still enjoyed today. Hershey began making chocolate-covered caramels in 1893, and Mars soon followed with the production of the Milky Way.

Chocolate is even supplied as a ration for astronauts during space exploration and was provided to soldiers during World War I. In fact, American forces introduced chocolate to Japan during that same period. Queen Victoria started the tradition of giving chocolate to soldiers by sending gift baskets to armed forces as Christmas treats in the late 19th century. Asian populations consume relatively small amounts of chocolate, and countries like Ghana rarely use cacao beans, as they are worth more as a traded commodity.

Though chocolate is high in fat, studies have shown that the fat in chocolate does not raise cholesterol levels. Chocolate is also high in calories, making it a good source of energy – just one chocolate chip provides enough energy for an adult to walk about 150 feet. Chocolate contains a small amount of caffeine and also contains theobromine, which can be lethal to dogs and other animals in large doses. Store chocolate securely on a high shelf to ensure pets cannot reach it; it smells just as good to them as it does to us!

Chocolate has been around for centuries and has undergone quite a transformation from an ancient bitter beverage to the sweet treat we know and love today. Go ahead and celebrate your newly found knowledge of chocolate trivia by indulging in a piece – only then can you truly appreciate all that chocolate has to offer!

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The very first people to discover cacao were the Maya, who took the cacao tree from the rainforest and planted it in their backyards to grow and harvest the cacao beans. The Mayans would grind the beans into a paste, adding water, cornmeal, and chili peppers to make a spicy yet bitter chocolate drink. The Maya had no access to sugar, so the first chocolate beverages (known as chocolatl) were not sweet. Around 1400, the Aztecs discovered cacao through trade with the Maya. The Aztecs even used the cacao beans as a form of currency, demanding that citizens and conquered peoples supply cacao beans as payment.

The Evolution of Chocolate in Europe

In both Aztec and Maya religious ceremonies, priests would offer cacao beans to the gods, and chocolate drinks were served during these rituals. For the Maya, chocolate drinks were consumed by everyone occasionally but were often reserved for royalty. In Aztec society, only rulers, soldiers, and other high-status individuals could drink the chocolate beverage.

Spanish conquistadors reached Mexico around 1521, where they observed the consumption of chocolate among the Aztec people. The Spaniards recognized the value of the cacao bean and brought it back to Europe, where it was served to European royalty. However, when the cacao was shipped back to Europe, the Aztec drink was too bitter for European tastes, so they added sugar cane, vanilla, and even cinnamon, and began heating the chocolate concoction to be enjoyed warm. Cacao beans were initially an expensive import, making the chocolate drink a status symbol among the European upper class, who drank it from elaborate porcelain and silver cups. Eventually, as the price of cacao beans dropped, the chocolate beverage became widely popular.

To keep up with demand for cacao beans, the Spanish established colonial plantations using slaves and wage laborers to grow and harvest cacao and sugar cane. Small European shops began making chocolate drinks, and in 1847, a company called Fry & Sons introduced solid chocolate. Then, in 1876, Daniel Peter of Switzerland developed a way to add milk to chocolate, giving it a sweeter flavor and smoother texture, thus creating milk chocolate. The introduction of steam engines during the Industrial Revolution of the 1700s allowed large amounts of cacao beans to be processed into solid chocolate. This mass production method made chocolate affordable for the first time, bringing it to the general public.

As chocolate became more inexpensive, manufacturers began advertising it heavily to women and children. Chocolate for breakfast was promoted as a way to provide a boost of energy, and many people began using it in desserts and confections.

Today, most chocolate is processed and manufactured by machinery, but cacao beans are still farmed and harvested much like they were by the Aztecs and Maya—by hand. In 1910, William Cadbury brought together a group of American and English chocolate companies that refused to buy chocolate from cacao plantations with harsh working conditions. However, some cacao plantations, particularly in West Africa, still use slave labor when cacao bean prices fall.

Chocolate is still associated with holidays such as Easter and Christmas, and is enjoyed worldwide. It is also provided as a ration for the United States military and was introduced to Japan during World War II. Additionally, chocolate is used in medicines and cosmetics. It continues to be studied for potential health benefits and has been found to provide flavonoids and antioxidants that protect the body from disease.

Many chocolate companies have come and gone, but a few manufacturers—such as Cadbury, Hershey, and Mars—remain, all of which began in the late 1800s to early 1900s.

A tale beginning in the depths of the American rainforests over 2,000 years ago, the history of chocolate includes religious worship, slavery, high-society snobbery, and a transformation in production methods that made chocolate available to the masses. The same cacao bean that was so highly regarded by the Maya and Aztecs still remains a beloved treat in modern society.

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There is a reason that Thanksgiving is associated with pumpkin pies. It was a way to make use of the leftover pumpkins from Halloween in colonial America. Remember, our ancestors who colonized this country had a tough time, with limited supplies to sustain them. They did their best not to waste anything, and to derive the most use from all of their supplies. Food was no exception. Even carved pumpkins were roasted and eaten. Pumpkin seeds were toasted and consumed as well.

It may surprise a lot of people to know that there is more to making a pumpkin pie than just dumping a can of pumpkin, milk and spices into a pie crust, and baking it. If you have never experienced the wonderful treat of fresh pumpkin pie, you have really missed out on something special. There is no comparison between fresh and canned pumpkin. It’s like the difference between fresh baked bread, right out of the oven, and store bought, plastic wrapped bread full of lecithin, guar gum and completely dead. Fresh pumpkin pie is full of life, as opposed to canned pumpkins, which have had every last bit of life cooked out of them.

Making pumpkin pie from scratch is within even a modest cooks means. It just calls for a bit of knowledge, and some development of technique.

Pumpkins are a gourd-like squash, and belong to the genus Cucurbita, and the family of Curcurbitaceae. This includes all varieties of pumpkins, as well as the various squash species. In Australia, the word ‘pumpkin’ refers to winter squash. The origin of pumpkins is murky, but they are native to north America. Seeds have been found in Mexico dating back to between 5500-7000 BC. The ancient Greeks called them pepon, meaning “large melon”. Later, the French slurred the word into pompon. The English twisted this word into pumpion. The early American colonists, not to be outdone, further stretched the word into its modern form, pumpkin, or in the South, punkin.

Several varieties of pumpkin can be used for pies. The standard pumpkin sold at Halloween is the Lumina. These have been cultivated specifically for carving, with a thick skin, and very fibrous pulp. They can be used for pies with just a little extra preparation. Jack O Lanterns have already been scooped out. For unused pumpkins, split them and scoop out the stringy insides (but don’t throw the seeds away. Separate them. They can be toasted and eaten, or ground up and used in soups, stews and sauces for wonderful added flavor, and as a thickener). Discard the stringy stuff. Leave the skins on, and cut the pumpkins into 1”-1-1/2” chunks, place them in a pot and cover them to 1” in water. Simmer for 20 minutes, or until the pumpkin is tender. Drain, cool and peel off the skin. Now, you can use a food processor, or a potato-masher to mash the pumpkin into a semi-smooth pulp. Now it is ready to use in any fresh pumpkin pie recipe. If you are not going to use it immediately, you can freeze it for up to a year in a
Zip-Lok freezer bag.

Other varieties that make excellent pumpkin pies are:

• Cinderellas-these are beautiful French Heirloom pumpkins. This is the pumpkin that Cinderella’s coach was supposed to be made from. They have firm succulent flesh, with a good flavor.
• Pink Banana-this is a delectable pumpkin that makes a sensational pie. As the name suggests, they are lighter colored than standard pumpkins, and somewhat elongated. The pulp is finer grained and sweeter than other varieties. They are seldom seen whole in stores. They are usually chunked, and wrapped in plastic. Try to find whole fresh ones for an absolutely divine pie.
• Sugar Pie-this variety is as perfect as you could ask for in a cooking pumpkin. They are thin skinned, finer grained, and much sweeter than Luminas. They are also much drier, making for a more stable pie filling.
• Blue Hubbard-this is the pumpkin of choice for baking in New England. It has fine-textured, orange-yellow flesh that is medium dry, and medium sweet. It is perfect for baking, and soups.

Whatever type of pumpkin you decide to use, you need to select ones that are fully mature, with a good hard skin. The way to check them is to poke the skin with  your fingernail. If it does not crack, the pumpkin is mature enough. You can also thump them, much like a water melon, and listen for the right “thud”. Another way is to heft them. A pumpkin with some weight to it for it’s size will have good dense pulp. Never carry a pumpkin by its stem. It can break off and leave an otherwise good pumpkin with an open wound, inviting infection and rot. Always check your pumpkins for dark and soft spots. Also look for nicks in the skin. The smallest nick can invite rot in. Be sure to check the bottoms, where they have been resting on the cool damp ground. If you are not going to use them immediately, be sure to store them where hungry animals, and insects will not snack on them.

Now you are ready to try the best fresh pumpkin pie recipe you’ve ever tasted:

Fresh Pumpkin Pie Recipe

This makes two 9-inch pies, so you will need 2 of your favorite pie crusts.

2 cups mashed cooked pumpkin
1 can of evaporated milk
2 eggs, beaten
1 cup brown sugar
¼ cup honey
1 tsp fresh ground cinnamon
1 tsp fresh ground nutmeg
1 tsp fresh ground ginger
½ tsp salt
2 uncooked pie crusts

– Preheat oven to 400ºF
– Make your crusts, and line two 9-inch pie pans with them.
– In a mixer (or if doing it by hand, a large mixing bowl), on medium speed, beat pumpkin, milk, eggs, brown sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger and salt until smooth. Dividing evenly between the two crusts, pour the mixture into the crust-lined pie pans.
– Bake for 40 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted in the centers comes out clean.
– Allow to cool for 20 minutes before slicing
– Garnish with Cool Whip, or whipping cream, and lots of hot, rich coffee.

Bakers Trick #1: If you have trouble with the edges of the pie crust getting too dark before the whole pie is done, cut foil into thin strips and lay these over the crust edge for the first 20-25 minutes of baking. Then remove them, and continue baking until the pies are done.

Bakers Trick #2: If you have trouble transferring the crust to a pie pan without tearing it, do it the way the pros do. Dust the crust lightly with flour, flip it over and dust the other side. Now fold one half over the other, then fold it again the other way, until you have a quarter wedge. Put a very thin layer of oil, butter, margarine, shortening, or non-stick baking spray on the pie pans. Now gently pick the folded crust up, lay it in one corner of the pie pan, and gently unfold it. Adjust it until it is centered, and you now have a perfect crust-lined pie pan. Repeat for the other pan.

Bonus Recipe

The Perfect Pie Crust – (Pâtè Briseè)

There are a few tricks of the trade to make a World-Class pie crust. Like most outstanding cooking, it’s more than just a list of ingredients.

Bakers Trick #3: For an extra-flaky pie crust, use butter, and shortening. The butter makes a deliciously flavored crust, and the shortening makes a very flaky crust. Mixing them gives you the best of both worlds.

Bakers trick #4: You don’t want to blend the ingredients. You just want to coat the fat (butter and shortening) with flour. Do not over work the dough. The less you can manipulate it, the better.

Bakers Trick #5: The colder the better. Everything should be chilled before you start. Place the flour, shortening, and butter in the freezer for 20 minutes before using. Place cold water in a large mixing cup with ice in it, and let it set in the refrigerator for 20 minutes before using it. This is how you make a killer crust…

2-1/2 cups all purpose flour
¼ cup shortening
2 sticks butter
1 cup ice-cold water
1 tsp salt
1 tsp sugar (optional)

All ingredients should be well chilled before you start. Putting the crust together must be done quickly, before the ingredients warm up, so have everything ready and easily at hand before you start. Have a pastry cutter close by and ready to go.

Cut the butter and shortening into the flour, salt and sugar, with the pastry cutter, or two butter knives (don’t use your hands. Their heat will warm the ingredients), as quickly as possible. You want it to be pebbly-looking, with pea-sized grains, or smaller. With a mixing spoon, and a tablespoon, stir in the cold water a tablespoon at a time, until the dough just starts to stick together. Check it by squeezing some together in your hand. If it sticks, then it’s ready. If not, keep going until it does.

Form the dough into a ball, then divide the dough into two equal halves, and wrap each in Saran Wrap (or equivalent). Refrigerate them for one hour. (Even this little amount of handling can activate the gluten in the dough. Great for bread, bad for crust. It needs to settle down and rest a bit before continuing.)

Roll each ball of dough out (one at a time) to approximately 1/8” thick. Place your pie pan upside-down over the dough, and cut a circle 1-1/2” larger than the outside edge of the pan. Turn the pan over, lightly oil, grease,  or spray the pan with non-stick baking spray, and transfer the crust to the pan. Do the same for the other pan and ball of dough. Set both pans in the refrigerator for 15-30 minutes to let the dough settle-down once more. Now, fill the shells and bake.

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