Dogs’ poor short-term memory can significantly impact their daily lives, especially when their humans come home after a long day at work only to find that Rover has chewed up a good shoe or a couch pillow. It may be tempting to punish Rover for his misdeed, but unless you catch him in the act, he’ll have no idea why he’s being punished. Instead, he may come to associate the punishment with your arrival home from work. This could leave him confused, stressed, and fearful of you. You certainly don’t want that!

Long-Term Memory: Emotional Associations and Impressions

Long-term memory, often referred to as “associative” or “imprint” memory, is indefinite. This is where dogs “remember” the room in the house where they are most likely to receive a treat or associate your putting on a specific pair of shoes or coat with going for a walk. Scientists believe dogs can form long-term memories based on a variety of experiences, but those with highly positive or negative connotations tend to stand out the most.

“Important events, such as those related to food and survival, and events with emotional impact, are more likely to be stored in long-term memory,” says Claudia Fugazza, a researcher at the Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest.

The timing of experiences is also crucial for the formation of long-term memories. Puppies are most impressionable between 3 and 12 weeks of age. “Puppies and kittens both go through a rapid learning phase early in life, where they form memories that influence their behavior for the rest of their lives,” explains Dr. Kersti Seksel, a registered veterinary specialist in behavioral medicine at Sydney Animal Behaviour Service in Australia. “During this period, it’s vital to expose them to proper socialization, training, and conditioning.”

It’s also possible to help a dog transform a negative long-term memory into a positive one, according to one veterinarian. For example, if we respond to our dog’s stress at the vet clinic by becoming anxious ourselves, “the memory of the building, the smells, and the people in that building will forever be scary.” To address this, the vet suggests periodic “happy visits” to the clinic, where the dog receives a treat, some love, or simply comes in and leaves without any stress. This approach has led to complete turnarounds in the demeanor and behavior of many dogs.

What’s most important to remember about our dogs and their memories is that they don’t remember the way humans do. They probably don’t recall the day you brought them home or the day you rescued them from the shelter. Their only lasting memory of the shelter may be an anxiety around cages. Their short-term, or “working,” memory is inadequate for remembering events like tearing into the garbage while you were away. Therefore, punishing them for such actions makes no sense, as they won’t understand the reason behind it. With a short-term memory span of just 70 seconds, you must catch them in the act for any punishment to make sense.

What is clear, however, is that dogs remember YOU, they love you, and they look to you for guidance, safety, security, and that love that only you can provide.

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Diarrhea is always a symptom of an underlying problem and not a disease in itself. It can range from occasional loose stools to a continuous watery stream of feces. Unfortunately, many potential causes exist, and determining the cause may require collaboration between you and your veterinarian.

One of the most common causes of diarrhea is intestinal upset. A sudden change in diet, an unfamiliar treat, or feeding table scraps can trigger diarrhea. If the diarrhea is not severe and your dog continues to feel and act normally, it can often be resolved at home. Withholding food for 24 hours allows the dog’s digestive system to settle (while ensuring continued water intake). After 24 hours, you can offer small amounts of a bland diet, such as white rice and chicken. If the diarrhea subsides, you can gradually reintroduce their original diet and transition slowly to the new one. However, if diarrhea does not improve or worsens, veterinary treatment may be required.

To avoid intestinal upsets from dietary changes, all food transitions should occur over several days, allowing your dog to adjust to the new food. For the first three days, feed ¼ of the new diet and ¾ of the old food. If your dog is doing well, continue with half of each for another three days, then transition to ¼ old food and ¾ new food for an additional three days. This gradual approach helps minimize intestinal upset and reduces the risk of diarrhea.

Although many dogs receive table scraps, care must be taken to ensure that human foods are not too rich for their systems. Fatty foods can cause diarrhea and vomiting, and may also lead to pancreatitis, an inflammation of the pancreas that can result in chronic digestive issues. Additionally, while dogs enjoy many types of meat we consume, the form they are accustomed to (in their dog food) is highly processed. Giving large amounts of meat from human plates can be too rich and cause diarrhea. It’s also crucial to remember that dogs should NEVER be given turkey or chicken bones, as these can splinter and puncture the stomach and intestines.

Intestinal Parasites Can Cause Diarrhea in Dogs

Intestinal parasites are a common cause of diarrhea in dogs. Various types of parasites can infect dogs, and diarrhea is often one of the most frequent symptoms of such infections.

Roundworms are among the most commonly seen intestinal parasites in puppies. Although roundworms are not typically active in most adult dogs, puppies are particularly susceptible to their presence and effects. Dogs ingest roundworm eggs from contaminated soil, and puppies can receive them from their mothers. As the eggs hatch in the intestine, the larvae are carried to the lungs via the bloodstream. From the lungs, the worms crawl up the windpipe, causing gagging and coughing before returning to the intestine to mature. Roundworms can grow up to seven inches long and appear spaghetti-like—long and thin. Signs of infestation include a pot-bellied appearance, poor growth, and a rough, dull coat. Diarrhea and vomiting may also occur, and the dog may expel worms in their stool or vomit. If unchecked, these worms can lead to pneumonia, intestinal obstructions, and death.

Hookworms can affect dogs of all ages but are most common in warmer, humid climates. They are transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated feces. Mature hookworms attach to the intestinal lining and feed on the blood supply. In pregnant dogs, hookworms can migrate into the fetuses, infesting the puppies even before birth. Hookworms can be particularly devastating for puppies, leading to severe anemia, weakness, and bloody diarrhea.

While not a worm, Giardia is an intestinal parasite caused by a single-celled organism that resides in the intestines of infected animals. Recent research shows that Giardia is present in up to 11% of the general pet population and as many as 50% of puppies. It can be transmitted from pet to pet, through contaminated feed or water, and through soil. Pets who frequent dog parks, doggy daycare, or kennels are at a higher risk for infection. The most common symptom of Giardia is diarrhea of varying severity, although many infected animals may show no symptoms for extended periods, making routine testing vital.

Coccidia is another single-celled organism that infects the small intestine of dogs. Some dogs with coccidia show no signs of illness, while others may experience severe bouts of watery stools and bloody diarrhea, vomiting, depression, fever, and even death due to severe dehydration. These serious side effects are most common in puppies and adult dogs suffering from other illnesses.

Diarrhea in puppies is particularly concerning, as it is often the first symptom of severe and potentially fatal viral diseases such as parvovirus, coronavirus, and distemper.

Parvovirus is most commonly found in young, unvaccinated dogs or those who have not completed their vaccination series. The virus attacks and kills the cells in the intestinal lining, preventing the dog from absorbing nutrients and liquids. Dogs with parvo typically develop a high fever, lethargy, and loss of appetite. Profuse, liquid diarrhea occurs as intestinal damage progresses, and the stool may be foul-smelling or contain blood. This condition can lead to severe dehydration, shock, and death, often proving fatal even with aggressive treatment. Vaccination is the best prevention against parvo.

Like parvo, the coronavirus is a highly contagious virus that causes gastrointestinal issues. While adult dogs may experience mild symptoms and recover within days without treatment, puppies can develop far more serious infections and complications. Signs of coronavirus are similar to parvo, including profuse watery diarrhea, which, if left untreated, can cause severe dehydration and secondary complications.

Canine distemper virus is a devastating, highly contagious disease that primarily affects unvaccinated dogs and puppies. The virus typically targets the brain, intestinal tract, and upper respiratory system. A high fever is usually the first sign of infection, accompanied by coughing, sneezing, and green nasal discharge. As the virus progresses, it affects the intestinal tract, causing vomiting and dark, tarry diarrhea. Eventually, the virus can travel to the brain and spinal cord, leading to seizures and uncontrollable twitching.

There is no cure for distemper; medical treatment focuses on controlling symptoms and supporting the dog’s body during the infection. Even with aggressive treatment, distemper is often fatal, and survivors may suffer lifelong neurological issues. Vaccination is the best way to prevent distemper.

Other causes of acute diarrhea in dogs can include bacterial infections (such as salmonella and E. coli), toxin exposure (from insecticides and lead), and even stress.

Treatment for acute diarrhea in dogs focuses on diagnosing and correcting the underlying issue. If your dog has had loose stools for less than 24 hours but is otherwise acting normally (with a normal energy level and eating and drinking normally), you may choose a conservative approach and monitor their condition. However, if your dog shows any additional signs of distress or has had increasing amounts of diarrhea for any length of time, a visit to the veterinarian is required.

Your veterinarian will take a full history of your dog’s condition, including when the diarrhea first started and any possible precipitating factors. After a comprehensive physical exam, your veterinarian may recommend:

Fecal testing: A sample of the diarrhea will be obtained and checked for evidence of parasites such as roundworms and coccidia. An antigen test may also be performed on the fecal sample to check for Giardia.

Fecal cultures may be recommended to test for the presence of bacteria in the stool, such as salmonella.

Blood work: Blood chemistry tests assess various body systems and provide insights into the health of your dog’s major organs, such as the kidneys and liver. A complete blood count (CBC) evaluates the components of your dog’s blood, including red and white blood cells and platelets. The CBC can help diagnose or rule out infection as a potential cause of your dog’s diarrhea.

Parvo test: In puppies, a parvovirus antigen test may be performed. This quick “snap” test uses a small sample of feces, with results typically available within minutes. The sooner parvo is diagnosed and treated, the better the chance of a favorable outcome for your puppy.

X-rays: Radiographs of your dog’s abdomen may be recommended to rule out potential intestinal obstructions or foreign bodies that may have been ingested.

Treatment for your dog’s diarrhea will depend on what your vet suspects might be causing it. In cases of intestinal upset, a bland diet may be all that’s needed to settle

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Cancer is a general term that encompasses over a hundred disease-types, involving the growth of abnormal cells. Cells in the body are constantly growing old or becoming damaged, and new cells that are exact replicas replace them. A careful balance exists where there are the same number of new cells are produced as there are dying off- and if this balance is disrupted, extra cells begin to replicate, undergo genetic changes, and it is these excess, mutated cells that gather together to form masses and tumors.

There are two types of tumors in dogs- malignant (cancerous) and benign (non-cancerous). Benign tumors are masses that for the most part stay contained within their own constraints, and do not typically invade surrounding tissues. Benign tumors may appear unsightly, but rarely cause severe health problems as a direct result of their presence.

In contrast, malignant tumors are made up of cells that are highly invasive, and have the ability to break away from the place they were formed to travel throughout the body via the bloodstream and lymphatic system. Once these cells have spread to other organs, the cancer has metastasized, and the cells have the ability to initiate new tumors throughout the body.

Types of Cancers in Dogs

While there are over a hundred types of cancers in dogs that can occur, there are several types that can compete for the dubious honor of most common types of cancers. In general, malignant cancers fall into two sub-categories.

Originating from epithelial cells (skin cells that cover the lining of body surfaces), Carcinomas can occur on the skin, bladder wall, and blood vessels that then pass into the surrounding tissues and organs.

Tumors originating from connective tissues (muscles, cartilage and lymphatic tissue) are sarcomas.

Lymphosarcoma, or lymphoma, is a type of cancer that occurs in the dogs’ lymphatic system, a cornerstone of the immune system. While lymphoid tissue is common in many parts of the body, cancers typically occur in the lymph nodes, liver, spleen and skin.

Pets affected with lymphoma of the gastrointestinal tract may have chronic vomiting, weight loss and decreased appetite, while a less common cutaneous, or skin form of the disease may cause the sudden appearance of multiple skin lesions and lumps. The most common form of lymphoma occurs in the lymph nodes, with lethargy and lymph node swelling the most common signs.

While lymphoma most often occurs in older dogs (over 7 years old), there is no strong breed disposition, and any pet can develop lymphoma. Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice in lymphoma, and may be employed in conjunction with anti-inflammatory medications. Lymphoma is considered one of the more treatable cancers, with good long-term survival rates when aggressive treatment is initiated.

Hemangiosarcoma is a sarcoma cancer that forms in the blood vessels, and develops in blood-rich areas of the body such as the spleen, liver and heart. Hemangiosarcoma’s typically go unnoticed for a period of time after onset, during which time they are quietly growing, accumulating infected blood vessels. When the tumor gets too large to stay intact, it may rupture, leading to severe weakness and anemia as a result of the loss of blood from the tumor. This initial episode is often the first symptom of the bigger, more serious problem going on, and by the time it occurs, the internal organ the tumor has resided has become heavily damaged.

Older dogs are most prone to hemangiosarcomas, and of these, several breeds, including German Shepherds and Golden Retrievers, have a much higher incidence of it’s occurrence than others.

Cancers in dogs that originate in the bones are Osteosarcomas. While they account for only 5% of all cancers in dogs, osteosarcomas are extremely painful, difficult to treat and have a poor long terms survival rate. Swelling and lameness are the most common symptoms, and radiographs will often readily show their presence. These tumors have an extremely high rate of metastasis, often traveling to the lungs where they quickly become deadly.

Osteosarcomas are common to large and giant breeds of dogs, including Rottweilers, Dobermans, Great Danes and Saint Bernard’s. Studies have shown that dogs weighing 80 lbs or more are 60 times more likely to become affected with osteosarcomas than smaller dogs, though the exact causes of this are not currently known. Typically amputation of the affected bone is performed (whenever possible) but due to the high prevalence of spread to the lungs, survival rates for osteosarcoma are generally poor.

Unlike many other cancers in dogs, mammary carcinomas in dogs are highly preventable. Studies have shown that in female dogs spayed before their first heat cycle, their risk of developing mammary cancer is 0.05%. This number rises to 8% in dogs spayed after their first heat, and 26% in dogs spayed after their second heat. By spaying your female dog before her first heat cycle, you can virtually guarantee she will not develop malignant mammary cancer.

Found most commonly in unsprayed, middle-aged female dogs, malignant mammary cancer in dogs is somewhat similar to breast cancer in humans. These tumors appear as a solid mass or several small growths or swellings, easily felt under the skin. They can appear suddenly and grow rapidly, necessitating quick action on your part in order for treatment to be initiated quickly.

Once it has developed in the mammary glands, mammary cancer can spread throughout the body through the lymph nodes, located close to the mammary glands. The nodes release cancer cells into the lungs and liver, creating secondary cancers in those locations. Surgical removal as soon as a mass appears is the best treatment, and further treatment may be required depending on the spread and involvement of surrounding tissues to the tumor.

Mast cell tumors are the most common type of malignant skin tumor in dogs. Formed by special cells that contain “attack” enzymes that can break down proteins of invading parasites into the body, mast cells are a component of the immune system and their unique make up makes them a distinctively behaving cancer. Mast cells form on the surface of the skin, and can appear in a variety of ways, making their diagnosis nearly impossible without a biopsy.

Once they occur, mast cell tumors can quickly grow from small “skin tag”-like growths on the surface to the skin to invading full thickness of the skin, and progressing to the lymph nodes for systemic infection. Surgery is often indicated in order to remove the affected tissue, and in conjunction with chemotherapy and radiation a complete cure is often possible in early stages of the disease.

Cancer of any type is a scary diagnosis for any pet owner, but with advances in diagnosis, treatment and medicines, it is not always a death sentence for dogs. Veterinary oncologists are a rapidly growing segment of the veterinary landscape, and their guidance and care for your dog can significantly improve his or her chances for surviving cancer.

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Lungworms in dogs are tricky parasites that can be difficult to diagnose. They cause symptoms similar to those of several other varied conditions, making it challenging and often prolonged to determine lungworms as the cause of respiratory problems in dogs.

Caused by the parasitic nematode Oslerus (filaroides) osleri, lungworms are Strongylida parasites that infect the lungs of many mammals. There are several types of lungworms, which, in different ways, infect animals and migrate to the lungs and lower respiratory tract of their chosen host. This migration leads to various respiratory issues, such as bronchitis and pneumonia.

While lungworm infections are more commonly seen in livestock, such as cattle, sheep, and goats, they frequently cause significant losses worldwide. Most livestock farms implement periodic broad-spectrum deworming programs to control and treat these infections.

In dogs, lungworms most commonly affect puppies, who become infected through the saliva or feces of an infected dog, usually their mother. The parasite lives in the nodules of the trachea, laying eggs in the mucus membranes of the trachea. These eggs hatch into large numbers of parasites that then travel further into the bronchi and respiratory tract.

The most common symptoms of lungworm infection include airway irritation and persistent coughing. However, because lungworms are not terribly common in dogs, and there are many other more frequent causes of these symptoms, a process of elimination is necessary to diagnose the cause and treat the underlying condition.

Before lungworms are considered as a cause for coughing in younger dogs (less than 2 years old), the following conditions should also be considered, as they are far more widespread.

Common Respiratory Issues to Consider in Dogs

Acute infectious tracheobronchitis, or Kennel Cough, is so named because of the highly contagious and quickly spreading nature of the infection. Most often caused by the bacteria Bordetella bronchiseptica or the virus canine adenovirus, kennel cough is spread through the air by infected dogs sneezing and coughing, as well as through exposure to contaminated surfaces. It is most common in areas where dogs are housed together or come into contact with each other, such as kennels, pet stores, shelters, dog shows, and groomers.

The hallmark symptom of kennel cough is a harsh, hacking, non-productive cough and a gagging “reverse sneeze.” The coughing may occur at any time during the day, but it is most often noticeable when the dog is excited, exercising, or when pressure is placed on the trachea (such as when walked on a collar and leash). Most dogs infected with kennel cough do not show any other signs of illness except for the distinctive cough. Fortunately, kennel cough symptoms are generally self-limiting, and most cases will resolve without medical intervention within 14 days. However, in rare cases, the disease can progress to life-threatening pneumonia. Your veterinarian can prescribe medication to help shorten the length and severity of symptoms. The best prevention for kennel cough is vaccination and limiting exposure to areas where kennel cough is commonly seen.

In young puppies, other parasites, such as roundworms, should be considered when coughing and respiratory problems are present. As many as 85% of puppies are born with roundworms, transmitted from their mother’s milk. Roundworm eggs hatch in the intestine, and the larvae are carried to the lungs via the bloodstream to mature. The worms then crawl up the trachea, causing coughing, gagging, and retching, until they are swallowed and taken back to the intestine to grow into adults.

Roundworms, which resemble spaghetti, can grow up to seven inches long and mature quickly, causing severe side effects in puppies as young as a few weeks old. Along with coughing, symptoms include a pot-bellied appearance, poor coat condition, and worms in the stool. If left unchecked, roundworms can lead to pneumonia, intestinal obstructions, and even death.

Heartworm infection is a much more dangerous and potentially deadly parasite that lives in the heart of infected animals. Caused by the parasitic roundworm Dirofilaria immitis, heartworm is spread through the intermediate host, the mosquito. An infected mosquito bite spreads heartworm larvae through the bloodstream, and adult worms come to rest in the pulmonary artery of the dog, where they can live for many years.

Signs Your Dog May Have Heartworms

Dogs show virtually no signs of heartworm infection until the worms have matured and reproduced. Adult worms can grow up to 30cm in length. The main symptom of heartworm is coughing, which typically starts only during exercise and progresses to coughing up blood, congestive heart failure, and eventually death. Heartworms are prevalent in virtually every part of the United States and Canada, as well as many other parts of the world. Treatment of heartworm is difficult, expensive, and often dangerous. However, heartworm disease is completely preventable with monthly prophylactic medications, available through your veterinarian.

Allergies, allergic bronchitis, and pneumonia must also be considered as possible causes of coughing and respiratory issues. Your veterinarian will examine your pet, take a complete medical history, and decide which tests may be necessary to assist in diagnosis. Chest X-rays to check for pneumonia or abnormal lung appearance may be recommended, as well as blood tests to determine if an infection is present or to test for heartworm disease. If other potential causes of coughing are ruled out, lungworms may then be considered as the culprit. A fecal examination is the most common way to diagnose lungworms in dogs.

In severe cases of pneumonia or respiratory problems, a trans-tracheal wash may be performed. This procedure involves taking a sample of fluid directly from the dog’s trachea, which can help identify infections and diagnose respiratory issues. Because lungworms typically reside in this area, their presence may be inadvertently detected through the tracheal wash sample.

If lungworms are identified as the cause of your dog’s respiratory problems, several medications are available that can effectively kill the parasite and prevent further infestations. Preventing lungworms in dogs can be achieved by ensuring that breeding dogs are parasite-free before becoming pregnant, and by regularly treating puppies and young dogs with a broad-spectrum dewormer.

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The itching must stop – for both your sakes!

Fleas are the number one cause of misery in dogs and their owners. A single female flea can lay up to 2,000 eggs in her lifetime, meaning even a few fleas can lead to an imminent infestation. The flea lifecycle is much like that of a butterfly – females lay eggs that become larvae before turning into pupae. Pupae can live for years in their protective cocoons, waiting for something warm to come close. Once a mammal walks by, the pupae can shed their cocoon and jump up to four feet to land on their host – going from hibernation to feasting in less than three seconds!

The Hidden Flea Problem
Worse yet, the fleas you see are not the primary issue – it’s the flea eggs, larvae, and pupae hidden in your carpet, furniture, and bedding that are the real problem. On average, only 5% of the fleas in a room will be on your pet, while 10% are pupae, 35% are larvae, and 50% are flea eggs, all hiding in the carpet and furniture.

Fleas carry serious diseases, though they are rarely seen in the western hemisphere. However, fleas can also carry tapeworms and infect your pet with these nutrient-sucking parasites!

So, while a few fleas may not seem like a problem now, give it a month or two, and you and your poor pet will be knee-deep in these nasty bloodsuckers. Then, the real trouble begins.

How to Get Rid of Fleas

Getting rid of fleas is much easier now than it was even 20 years ago. Drug companies like Novartis®, Pfizer®, and Bayer® have made significant strides in eradicating flea infestations with products like Program, Revolution, and Advantage.

Program was the first breakthrough flea product. Released in the mid-90s as a beef-flavored pill for dogs and a sweet-tasting liquid for cats, it revolutionized flea management in the veterinary industry. Still available today, it works as birth control for fleas – they can bite, but they can no longer reproduce. Over time, and with the use of household sprays, the infestation is halted. An injectable form of Program was developed for cats, as not all cats liked the liquid form. The oral treatment is a monthly dose, while the injectable lasts for up to six months.

Although this was a breakthrough, it wasn’t fast enough for pets suffering from flea allergies. What was needed was something that killed fleas on contact.

Advantage was the next product to hit the market. This topical insecticide is applied to the back of a pet’s neck and guarantees to kill 99% of fleas within 24 hours for up to a month. If Program revolutionized flea control, Advantage completely transformed it!

Pfizer® took it a step further with Revolution, a topical treatment applied to the back and neck of pets. Not only does it kill fleas, but it also eliminates ticks, ear mites, sarcoptic mange, and heartworms. It also works against nematode intestinal worms, such as hookworms, whipworms, and roundworms. Revolution is especially beneficial in hot or humid climates where heartworms and intestinal worms are common concerns.

However, none of these products kill flea eggs, larvae, or pupae in the environment, so infestations can still occur as pupae hatch and jump onto you or your pet. Household sprays that contain methoprene, such as Precor, can kill pre-adult fleas and are effective for three to four months. Adult fleas in the house can be controlled with sprays that contain pyrethrins, but care must be taken if you have pets, especially cats. Always read the instructions carefully and follow precautions.

Choosing the Best Flea Treatment for Your Pet

What is the best method for you, your pet, and your home? In mild climates where fleas are a year-round problem, it’s easiest to administer a monthly flea control product every four weeks to prevent fleas from taking hold in your home. In areas with cold winters, flea control is unnecessary during the colder months, as fleas stay dormant through the winter. If you live in a region where heartworm is prevalent, have your pet tested first. If clear, a monthly dose of Revolution will manage both flea and heartworm problems.

If you don’t have a pet, spray your house and furniture with Precor every three months or whenever you notice adult fleas hatching. It will take some time to eliminate the infestation, but eventually, you’ll be flea-free!

Finally, if your pet has suffered through a flea infestation, make sure they are treated for tapeworms. Tapeworms are highly infectious and can be transmitted to humans. Deworming products are available through your veterinarian, along with flea control treatments recommended throughout this article.

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Thankfully, the vet reassured them that Fluffy did not need to be fully anesthetized. He could either remove the lump under local anesthesia, which would numb the area around the incision, or use a nerve or regional block to numb the entire limb by interrupting sensory nerve conductivity. The vet also recommended mild sedation to keep Fluffy calm throughout the short procedure and to help with any post-operative pain. Additionally, a Pre-Anesthetic Screen was advised to test her blood and urine for underlying conditions that could affect surgery. The tests would also assess her liver and kidney function, as these organs are put under significant stress when metabolizing anesthetic molecules during recovery.

The Surgery and Recovery Process

The surgery went entirely as planned. With Lidocaine numbing any pain around the surgical site, Fluffy barely noticed the vet removing the lump. Within a couple of hours after dropping her off, her owner was called to pick her up. Fluffy slept for most of the day but woke up around dinner time bright-eyed and busy-tailed. A few days later, the vet called with the lab results: the lump was cancerous, and a larger area of skin around the incision needed to be removed because the margins were not wide enough to be clear of the diseased tissue.

Fluffy was scheduled for another surgery the following day, with her owner following pre-operative instructions—no food for twelve hours before the procedure.

Before surgery, the vet checked Fluffy’s heart rate, listened to her breathing, felt her lymph nodes, and gave her a general examination to ensure she was healthy enough for surgery. X-rays of her chest and abdomen were taken to check if the cancer had metastasized to other organs, such as the lungs or liver. The results came back clear, so the vet decided to proceed with the surgery.

Fluffy was then given an injection of sedative under her skin (subcutaneously). There are three main types of injections: subcutaneous (sub-Q), intramuscular (IM), and intravascular (IV). Sub-Q injections are given below the skin and allow for slow absorption into the bloodstream. It usually takes about 20 minutes for the sedative to take effect, and these injections are often used in awake animals because they are the least painful. IM injections are given into the muscle and have a faster absorption rate but are more painful, so they are generally only used when the animal is sedated or anesthetized. IV injections are given directly into the vein and are used for instantaneous drug administration, especially with injectable anesthetics.

The pre-anesthetic sedative helped keep Fluffy calm and relaxed throughout the procedure. It also made the anesthetic process smoother, requiring less anesthetic to fully sedate her. The sedative also helped her wake up gently after the surgery, minimizing any involuntary movements or vocalizations that could cause stress.

While one veterinary assistant gently restrained Fluffy, another administered a short-acting anesthetic through her catheter. Common anesthetics used for this purpose include Pentothal (a barbiturate), Ketamine, Valium, and a newer drug called Propofol. In older or sickly dogs like Fluffy, Propofol is the preferred choice because it puts minimal strain on the liver and kidneys during metabolism. The amount administered was enough to temporarily anesthetize her, allowing the vet to place an endotracheal tube in her throat for oxygen and inhalant anesthetic, such as Halothane, Sevoflurane, or Isoflurane. The trach tube was important to protect the trachea and prevent aspiration pneumonia in case Fluffy vomited while under anesthesia.

Once the trach tube was in place, Fluffy was hooked up to a rebreather system that delivered the anesthetic and oxygen. The vet chose the best anesthetic based on her condition. Halothane is an older, easy-to-regulate drug with painkilling properties, while Isoflurane is metabolized more easily but requires additional pain management. Sevoflurane, a newer drug, causes less depression of heart rate and respiration but is more expensive, so many vets still rely on the other options.

As Fluffy was fully anesthetized, the surgical area was quickly prepped while she was hooked up to monitoring equipment. This included a Doppler to monitor her blood pressure, a Pulse Oximeter to check her heart rate and oxygen absorption, and a thermometer to track her temperature. The surgical table had a heated water pad to keep her warm, and additional hot water bottles were used to regulate her body temperature if necessary.

Throughout the surgery, Fluffy’s vital signs were continuously monitored. The level of anesthetic was adjusted to ensure she remained comfortable but not over-anesthetized. Since her surgery was not painful and involved little stimulation, the amount of anesthetic required was minimal. For more invasive surgeries, such as abdominal or orthopedic procedures, higher doses would be needed.

Although Fluffy was fourteen, she was in good health and at the ideal weight for her size, which contributed to her stable condition under anesthesia. Overweight animals often require more anesthetic and take longer to recover, as the drug is fat-soluble. Underlying health conditions can also impact recovery, which is why pre-anesthetic blood and urine tests are essential.

Fortunately, Fluffy’s recovery went smoothly, and she was allowed to go home just four hours after the surgery. Thanks to her good health and the excellent care she received, her recovery was quick and uneventful. The following day, she was insisting on her usual walk around the block and showed no discomfort from the bandage.

Veterinary anesthesia has come a long way, reducing risks significantly. With improved anesthetics, better monitoring equipment, and a deeper understanding of canine physiology, veterinarians are now able to perform life-saving surgeries on animals that would have been impossible just two decades ago. Anesthetic-related deaths in young, healthy animals are rare, and when they do occur, it’s often due to rare, undiagnosed conditions such as Feline Immunodeficiency Disease (FIV) in cats.

Two days later, the vet called again with more good news: all the diseased tissue had been removed, and Fluffy’s cancer was now gone. Her clean bill of health means she’s free from hospital visits until her next regular check-up in six months – a relief for both Fluffy and her owner!

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Insomnia is defined as a sleep disorder characterized by a qualitative and quantitative impairment of sleep caused by an alteration of the normal sleep-waking cycle where the waking status prevails over the sleeping status. Insomnia is more often a symptom rather than a disease in itself, and it can occur as a result of a variety of emotional or physical underlying disorders. That is why the problem of putting your dog to sleep should be always faced bearing in mind the underlying functional disorder (if known).

The causes of sleeplessness in dogs include:

1. physical conditions, such as pain from arthritis, hip dysplasia or some kind of injuries, parasite infestations (especially flea infestation), kidney problems, urinary incontinence, diabetes and allergies;
2. emotional disorders, such as depression, anxiety and stress;
3. prescribed medications, such as corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone), often used to treat a variety of autoimmune or allergic disorders;
4. old age, which is often associated to the development of painful conditions (cancer, arthritis), kidney disorders, diabetes and behavioral changes caused by a progressive degeneration of the nervous system (in that case the resulting syndrome is similar to that caused by Alzheimer’s disease in humans);
5. lack or inadequacy of exercise, which can cause the dog not to be tired enough to have a good sleep.

Not surprisingly, sleeplessness and insomnia are more often observed in older dogs, since they are most likely affected by all the conditions mentioned above. It should be also underlined that insomnia is often accompanied by other signs that should cause a more serious underlying problem to be suspected. These signs include: frequent need of urination, increased consumption of water, swollen joints, joint stiffness, signs of disorientation or confusion, crying or shivering at night when the dog wakes up. When insomnia is associated to one or more of these signs, then a visit to the veterinarian is highly recommended.

Of course, treating the underlying condition (whenever possible) should be the first step to be taken. This may cure sleeplessness by removing the cause that produced it. However many conditions that can produce insomnia are not immediately treatable and require a long term (even long-life) management plan, whose effects on sleeplessness (if any) can become apparent only after a prolonged period of time. In these cases, an approach aimed at directly treating insomnia may be recommended.

There are a variety of remedies to treat sleeplessness in dogs, that can make putting your dog to sleep more easy and can help your dog have a full-night’s sleep or at least a better quality sleep. These include medicinal remedies (both natural and pharmacologic) and certain strategies directed to promote a good sleep.

Natural Remedies to Help Your Dog Sleep

Natural remedies have calming effects and are effective in helping sleepless dogs. They include herbs such as valerian and passionflower and aromatherapy. Valerian and passionflower should be used as tinctures and given to the dog about one hour before bedtime. The recommended dose is 4 to 8 drops of the two ingredients mixed in equal parts (the exact dose depending on the dog’s weight). Aromatherapy is another natural approach believed to be effective in calming dogs and promoting sleep. It consists in diffusing a few drops of essential oils with calming properties (lavender, valerian, sweet marjoram, roman chamomile or a combination of them) in the room where the dog sleeps. This can help dogs calm down and have a better sleep.

Drug remedies are usually vet-prescribed medications such as antidepressants, anti-anxiety drugs, analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs. Of course the choice of the correct drug and its dosage depends on many factors, including the underlying cause of insomnia (depression, anxiety, pain, etc.), its severity, the dog’s physical condition and the concomitant drugs the dog is taking. Since drug remedies have often side effects, their use and dose should be carefully evaluated and determined only by the veterinarian prescriber.

There are however other strategies to promote a quality sleep in insomniac dogs. Some veterinarians recommend the use of orthopedic beds or heated beds for dogs suffering from arthritis. These beds are softer than regular dog beds, remove pressure points and help circulation, thereby helping alleviating pain and making the dog feel comfortable. It is also essential to place the bed in quiet area where the dog feels safe and confident.

Adequate exercise is important, too. Of course its amount and intensity should be commensurate with the ability of each individual dog to perform exercise. Even a slight physical activity can help the dog dissipate its energy and feel more tired at bedtime, thereby promoting a full-night’s sleep. Moreover regular exercise is also helpful to treat or prevent some conditions causing insomnia, such as depression, anxiety and diabetes.

Finally a mention should be made of toilet time. Some dogs wake up at night because they have to urinate. This is especially true for older dogs and those with certain health problems such as urinary incontinence and diabetes. In these cases a good practice is taking the dog outside before bedtime. Training him to use a wee wee pad is a good alternative, too.

Of course none of the remedies described above is immediately effective. However, through a correct combination of them, putting your dog to sleep and getting him to have a full-night’s or better quality sleep will become more easy over time.

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But what is best for your pet? Knowledge is the first step, and no, not for your dog. While dogs are smart, when was the last time you saw one crack a medical journal? Every pet owner should understand exactly what a vaccine is, how it works, what they are vaccinating against, and the potential dangers or side effects associated with over-vaccination.

What is a Vaccine?

Vaccines are preparations of killed or living weakened organisms introduced either by injection or orally into the body to trigger an immune reaction, leading to the formation of antibodies. Antibodies are necessary for the body to fight off or repel a disease entirely. The level of antibodies increases with each exposure to a particular disease. However, some diseases are best avoided, as exposing your dog to them could be fatal before they can develop immunity. For example, rabies—one exposure can kill your dog, and even if they develop immunity afterward, it doesn’t matter, as they are already dead from the first bout.

So how does a vaccine work if it exposes an animal to a disease but they do not actually develop the disease? Let’s use a common, non-fatal disease like the flu to explain the magic of vaccines—it’s much less confusing when the patient survives the exposure.

Imagine you’re exposed to a bad case of the flu and spend a week thinking you will certainly die. But, in fact, you get better, and now you’re immune to that strain of flu. Your immune system has these amazing infection fighters in the bloodstream called B cells, which are responsible for fighting off diseases. These B cells have memory and retain knowledge of the various diseases we encounter throughout our life. If you’re exposed to the same strain of flu virus again, your body will quickly deploy B cells to fight the disease before it can take hold.

Vaccines work the same way but without causing the patient to suffer through the disease. Instead, they stimulate the B cells to produce the necessary antibodies and “remember” the disease or pathogen. The result is immunity.

In canine health, the recommended vaccination protocol starts at six to eight weeks old, vaccinating against distemper, adenovirus, parvovirus, Leptospirosis, and parainfluenza. Boosters are given at four-week intervals until the pup is sixteen weeks old, followed by yearly boosters for the rest of their life. At sixteen weeks old, the pup is also vaccinated against rabies with a booster one year later and subsequent boosters every three years.

Some breeds, such as Rottweilers and pit bulls, are more susceptible to parvovirus than others, so veterinarians often recommend an extra twenty-week vaccine for that disease. Other vaccines, such as for Lyme disease and Giardia, are also available.

Is it essential to vaccinate against all of these diseases? Not necessarily. It depends on what your pup will be exposed to throughout their life. A city dog that rarely walks outside may never encounter Lyme disease or the deer tick that carries it. Meanwhile, a country dog may never come into contact with distemper or coronavirus but will likely be exposed to rabies at some point.

Location plays a significant role in deciding which vaccine protocol is best for your dog. Talk to your veterinarian about which diseases are a problem in your area and vaccinate accordingly. However, if you move or travel with your dog to a new area, they may not be sufficiently protected against diseases prevalent there.

‘Over-vaccination’ is the new buzzword, but is there a problem with how much we are vaccinating our pets? Maybe. We vaccinate based on protocol rather than assessing whether the animal actually needs the added protection. In the last decade, it’s become more common to measure the titer levels of certain diseases in the bloodstream. Titer refers to the concentration of antibodies for each disease. If the titer is high enough, no vaccine is necessary. However, if the levels are low, the specific vaccine will be administered. This ensures an animal is protected against a disease without the risk of being ‘over-vaccinated.’

So, what is this ‘over-vaccinated’ phrase? Immune-mediated responses are on the rise among our pets, and vaccines have been blamed for the increase in conditions such as allergies, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. While some people believe vaccines are the cause, others argue that the frequency of vaccination is the real problem. This brings us back to measuring titer levels—only vaccinating when necessary, rather than simply administering annual boosters.

Vaccines have saved far more dogs than they have harmed. Anyone who has worked in the veterinary field or witnessed a litter of puppies devastated by parvovirus knows how critical vaccines are to our pets’ health. Refusing to vaccinate a dog or cat is like playing Russian roulette with their life and well-being. Always vaccinate, but do so when necessary. Your pet will thank you for it by living a long and healthy life!

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Ticks live in grassy or wooded areas and are most active during the spring and summer months when they are searching for hosts. Often, a tick will crawl to the top of a blade of grass, wait for a passerby, and attach itself to anything that touches it. Since dogs are often outside, it is only natural that if you live in an area populated by ticks, your dog will eventually pick one up. Once a tick finds a host, it buries its head under the skin and begins feeding on the host’s blood. Daily tick checks are extremely important—the sooner you remove the tick, the better!

To check your dog for ticks, rub your hands all over their body, feeling for any small bumps or lumps. Pay special attention to the head, neck, ears, and paws. If you feel anything unusual, pull the hair back and examine the spot closely. A tick will typically appear brown or black, and its size will vary depending on how long it has been attached. It is especially important to check long-haired dogs, like Golden Retrievers, very carefully, as their thick coats can easily hide a tick.

Removing a Tick from Your Dog

Once you’ve located the tick, grab a pair of latex gloves and put them on. This will protect you from any diseases the tick may be carrying, as they can be harmful to both humans and animals. The safest way to remove a tick from your dog is with a pair of sterilized tweezers or a hemostat. You can sterilize your instrument with a swab of alcohol or by briefly passing it through a flame. With either tool, grasp the tick as close to the dog’s skin as possible, and gently pull it straight out. A gentle touch is very important during tick removal, as you don’t want to break the tick’s body off from its head, leaving the head behind in your dog’s skin. If this happens, contact your veterinarian immediately.

Some ticks may hold on longer than others, but with a firm yet gentle pull, the tick should detach within a minute. Once you’ve removed the tick, you have a few options for disposal: flush it down the toilet (ensuring it goes down), place it in a glass or plastic sealable jar for analysis, or crush it with something other than your fingers and dispose of it. Be careful not to crush the tick anywhere inside your home, as doing so could release any diseases it’s harboring.

After removing the tick, check your dog for any signs of a rash or reddish spots. Keep an eye on their behavior for any changes, such as soreness or limping. If any of these symptoms appear, consult your veterinarian, as they could be a sign that the tick has transmitted a disease to your dog. If you find yourself removing a significant number of ticks during a given season, consider investigating flea and tick medications and limiting your dog’s access to wooded, overgrown areas.

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Unfortunately, at a certain point, this tie is destined to come to an end, at least from a physical point of view. But not from an emotional point of view: our dogs will always remain as a part of our current life, even when they are no more with us in the physical form. Dogs live less than humans. They often share with us their entire life, from birth or puppy-hood, to adulthood, to old age, until death. A death that sometimes we have to “decide” for.

Putting your dog to sleep must be a conscious choice, although hard and painful. It should be driven by the awareness that all the possible ways to save your dog’s life have been attempted and there are no other ways to stop or at least relieve his suffering. In other words, this choice must arise and be accompanied by the awareness that your dog’s clinical conditions are no more compatible with your dog’s dignity. The reasons may be various, such as terminal illnesses, painful untreatable conditions, last stages of ageing accompanied by the loss of ability to eat and/or drink, etc.

Putting your dog to sleep is usually a choice taken upon advice of a veterinarian. Remember that this solution is painful for the veterinarian too, both for professional reasons (this is always his “last” solution, which implies his admission and acceptance of having been defeated in his attempt to overcome an untreatable disease or the inexorable ageing process of a dog), as well as for emotional reasons (veterinarians often become attached to their patients, so it is painful for them to see their death and, above all, to be the “executors” of their death). So, separating the technical procedure from the emotional component is difficult, if not impossible, for the veterinarian himself.

Euthanasia… What To Expect

From a practical point of view, putting your dog to sleep involves simply an anesthetic overdose. It is a painless procedure, which consists in the injection into a vein of a general anesthetic in a higher dose than that necessary to induce general anesthesia. In about 30 seconds, this drug causes a rapid loss of consciousness, immediately followed by cardio-respiratory arrest and finally cessation of the cerebral functions and death. Many veterinarians prefer to administer a premedication (usually analgesic drugs such as opioids) and/or a normal anesthesia prior to administering the lethal injection. This in order to minimize any possible pain, stress and anxiety that the dog might feel before losing his consciousness. The owner is free to choose whether to be present at the whole procedure or only at the initial premedication/anesthetic phase. He can also choose not to be present at all. However, at least in the first phase of the procedure (premedication or induction of the anesthesia), the presence of the owner can be useful to reduce the stress for the dog, by allowing him to fall asleep comfortably near his human friend. It should not be forgotten, in fact, that dogs who are going to undergo to the “peaceful death” procedure are usually already in a highly stressful state because of the suffering resulting from their severe and/or incurable condition. The presence of the owner may be important not to  aggravate this stressful condition and relieve as much as possible the dog’s fear and anxiety. However, if you feel that witnessing to your dog’s peaceful death would be too painful and that your own anxiety might add to your dog’s stress, then it may be better for you not to be present.

Before putting your dog to sleep, you will be asked by the veterinarian what you want to do with your dog’s remains. There are various options: you can leave the remains with the veterinarian or you can keep your dog close to you, by buring him in your private garden or other location such as a pet cemetery or having him cremated and then keeping his ashes as you want. The choice depends on what you feel is right for you and your pet.

For the first days after putting your dog to sleep, it is likely that you will have memory only of the most recent period lived with your pet, that is the period of suffering. You will likely feel guilty for his death (it’s normal) and you will feel an empty space in your lives. Fortunately these feelings are only temporary: over time bad memories and guilt will disappear and the empty space left by the death of your dog will be filled with positive memories of him, which will last for a lifetime. And remember always that putting your dog to sleep is not an egoistic choice. It is the last really altruistic gesture that you can make towards your dog, to help him relieve his suffering definitely.

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